INTRODUCTION TO EUCLID’S GEOMETRY-Notes

• Euclidean Geometry deals with the properties of points, lines, surfaces, and solids on flat (plane) or three-dimensional spaces.
• It is based on five key postulates, including the famous parallel postulate, which states that only one line can be drawn parallel to a given line through a point not on it.
• The system is axiomatic, meaning that complex theorems are derived logically from simple, self-evident truths (axioms).

Euclid, known as the Father of Geometry, was a Greek mathematician who lived around 300 BCE in Alexandria, Egypt. His most influential work, Elements, organized geometry into axioms, definitions, postulates, and logical proofs that remain the foundation of geometry today.

Core Definitions from Euclid's Elements

• Point:
  That which has no part. It indicates only position without size.
• Line:
  A breadthless length, extending infinitely in both directions.
• End of a line:
  A point
• Straight line:
  A line that lies evenly with the points on itself.
• Surface:
  That which has length and breadth only.
• Edge of a surface:
  A line is the boundary of a surface.
• Plane surface:
  A flat surface that lies evenly with the straight lines on itself.
• Angle:
  The inclination between two lines that meet in a plane and are not in the same direction.
• Circle:
  A plane figure bounded by one line (circumference) and described by a point (center) from which all straight lines to the circumference are equal.
• Triangle:
  A plane figure contained by three straight lines.

1. A straight line may be drawn from any one point to any other point.
   This means that through any two distinct points, there exists at least one straight line connecting them.

   

2. A Terminated (Finite) Line Can Be Produced Indefinitely
   A line segment can be extended infinitely in either direction to form a complete straight line. Example: If AB is a segment, it can be extended to form XY, a longer straight line through it.

   

3. A Circle Can Be Described with Any Centre and Distance
   Given a point as the centre and any length as the radius, a circle can be drawn. Example: For centre O and radius r, every point P on the circle satisfies \(OP=r\).
4. All Right Angles Are Equal to One Another
   Every right angle measures the same (90°). This ensures uniformity in geometric constructions involving perpendicular lines or squares.
5. The Parallel Postulate
   If a straight line falling on two other lines makes the interior angles on one side less than two right angles,
   the two lines will meet on that side if extended far enough.
   This is also known through Playfair’s alternative form:
   

   Through a given point not on a line, there is one and only one line parallel to the given line.

   This fifth postulate is unique because it describes the behavior of parallel lines, and its modification gave rise to non-Euclidean geometries such as hyperbolic and spherical geometry.

   

   For example, the line PQ in Fig. 4 falls on lines AB and CD such that the sum of the interior \(\mathrm\angle {APQ}\) and \(\mathrm\angle{PQC}\) is less than 180° on the left side of PQ. Therefore, the lines AB and CD will eventually intersect on the left side of PQ.

If A, B and C are three points on a line, and B lies between A and C (see Fig. 5.7), then prove that AB + BC = AC.

Proof:
Let A, B, and C be collinear points such that B lies between A and C.

According to the definition of a straight line segment, the segment AC consists of segments AB and BC placed one after the other (contiguous and collinear).

By Euclid’s axiom (Common Notion 2),
"If equals are added to equals, the wholes are equal."

Here, AB and BC are parts of AC, and their sum covers the whole segment AC.

Also, by Common Notion 5,
"The whole is greater than the part,"

so AC is made up of the sum of its parts AB and BC.

Therefore, we can write: \[AB + BC=AC\] Conclusion:
Hence, when B lies between A and C on a straight line, the sum of the lengths AB and BC is equal to the length AC, as per Euclid’s axioms.

Prove that an equilateral triangle can be constructed on any given line segment.

Proof (Using Euclid's Geometry):
Given:
A line segment AB (as shown in Fig. 5.8 (i)).

To Construct:
An equilateral triangle with AB as one of its sides.
Construction:
Draw the line segment AB.
With A as center and radius AB, draw a circle.
With B as center and the same radius AB, draw another circle.
Let the two circles intersect at point C (Fig. 5.8 (ii)).
Join AC and BC (Fig. 5.8 (iii)).
Now, triangle ABC is formed.

Proof:
Since C lies on the circle with center A and radius AB, \[AC=AB\] Similarly, C lies on the circle with center B and radius AB, \[BC=AB\] Therefore, \[AB=AC=BC\] By definition, a triangle with all sides equal is equilateral.

Conclusion
Hence, an equilateral triangle ABC can be constructed on any given line segment AB by the above Euclidean construction.
This uses Euclid’s third postulate: “A circle can be drawn with any center and any radius.”

• Though Euclid defined a point, a line, and a plane, the definitions are not accepted by mathematicians. Therefore, these terms are now taken as undefined.
• Axioms or postulates are the assumptions which are obvious universal truths. They are not proved.
• Theorems are statements which are proved, using definitions, axioms, previously proved statements and deductive reasoning.
• Some of Euclid’s axioms were :
  1. Things which are equal to the same thing are equal to one another.
  2. If equals are added to equals, the wholes are equal.
  3. If equals are subtracted from equals, the remainders are equal.
  4. Things which coincide with one another are equal to one another
  5. The whole is greater than the part.
  6. Things which are double of the same things are equal to one another.
  7. Things which are halves of the same things are equal to one another.
• • Postulate 1:
    A straight line may be drawn from any one point to any other point.
  • Postulate 2:
    A terminated line can be produced indefinitely
  • Postulate 3:
    A circle can be drawn with any centre and any radius.
  • Postulate 4:
    All right angles are equal to one another.
  • Postulate 5:
    If a line intersects two lines making interior angles less than 180°, those two lines meet on that side.